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In recent years, the rapid advances being made in computer technology have ensured that large sections of the world population have been able to gain easy access to computers on account of falling costs worldwide, and their use is now commonplace in all walks of life. Government agencies, scientific, business and commercial organizations are routinely using computers not just for computational purposes but also for storage, in massive databases, of the immense volumes of data that they routinely generate, or require from other sources. Large-scale computer networking has ensured that such data has become accessible to more and more people. In other words, we are in the midst of an information explosion, and there is urgent need for methodologies that will help us bring some semblance of order into the phenomenal volumes of data that can readily be accessed by us with a few clicks of the keys of our computer keyboard. Traditional statistical data summarization and database management techniques are just not adequate for handling data on this scale, and for extracting intelligently, information or, rather, knowledge that may be useful for exploring the domain in question or the phenomena responsible for the data, and providing support to decision-making processes. This quest had thrown up some new phrases, for example, data mining [1, 2] and knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). 

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Preface
Power and energy engineers, academics, researchers and stakeholders everywhere are pondering the problems of depletion of fossil fuel resources, poor energy efficiency and environmental pollution. Hence there is a new trend of generating energy locally at distribution voltage level by using small-scale, lowcarbon, non-conventional and/or renewable energy sources, like natural gas, biogas, wind power, solar photovoltaic, fuel cells, microturbines, Stirling engines, etc., and their integration into the utility distribution network. This is termed as dispersed or distributed generation (DG) and the generators are termed as distributed energy resources (DERs) or microsources. In the late 1990s, the major issues related to DG were extensively investigated by the working groups of CIGRE and CIRED in their review reports. As part of the Kyoto Protocol, many countries are planning to cut down greenhouse gas emissions (carbon and nitrogen by-products) to counter climate change and global warming. Hence many governments are coming up with new energy generation and utilisation policies to support proper utilisation of these low-carbon generation technologies. 
             Conventional electricity networks are in the era of major transition from passive distribution networks with unidirectional electricity transportation to active distribution networks with DERs and hence bidirectional electricity transportation. Active distribution networks need to incorporate flexible and intelligent control systems in order to harness clean energy from renewable DERs. They should also employ future network technologies for integration of DERs as smartgrid or Microgrid networks. The present ‘fit-and-forget’ strategy of DER deployment must be changed in active network management for accommodating a high degree of DG penetration. For actually implementing Microgrids and active distribution networks on a commercial basis, extensive research is needed, but not restricted to the following areas: (i) wide area active control, (ii) adaptive protection and control, (iii) network management devices, (iv) real-time network simulation, (v) advanced sensors and measurements, (vi) distributed pervasive communication, (vii) knowledge extraction by intelligent methods and (viii) novel design of transmission and distribution systems. 
             To the best of our knowledge, this book is the first of its kind to deal with various technical and economical aspects and issues of Microgrids and active distribution networks. Microgrids, as active low- and medium-voltage networks, can potentially provide a huge benefit to the main power utility by improving its energy efficiency, power quality and reliability to customers’satisfaction. However, a large number of technical and regulatory issues need to be addressed carefully before their implementation. This requires considerable research and government intervention across the world. 
            This book deals with the basic concept, generation technologies, impacts, operation, control and management aspects, and economic viability and market participation issues of Microgrid and active distribution networks in a broad perspective.                      Chapter 1 discusses the basic concepts of Microgrids and active distribution networks, their needs, technical advantages and challenges, socioeconomic impacts and several management and operational issues. 
            Chapter 2 discusses the basic principles of operation of several DER technologies normally used in Microgrid and active distribution networks. 
            Chapter 3 discusses the technical, economical and environmental impacts of Microgrid concepts. Microgrids have enormous impact on main grid operation and its customers. This chapter covers aspects of electricity/heat generation and utilisation, process optimisation, and electricity and gas market reforms to accommodate Microgrids for their potential environmental benefits. Major issues like market reforms, impacts on distribution system, emission reduction, communication infrastructure needs, ancillary services, protection co-ordination, etc., have also been discussed in detail. 
            Chapter 4 discusses the technical features of Microgrid and active distribution network management systems and their applicability in integrated operation of the Microgrid with the main power utility. It also details how and to what extent the operational needs may be taken care of by the Microgrid central controllers and microsource controllers. 
            Chapter 5 discusses in detail the protection systems in Microgrids, which have quite different protection requirements as compared to conventional distribution systems and stand-alone DER installations. 
            Chapter 6 discusses the development of power electronic interfaces for Microgrids, microsources and their controllers. Functioning of power electronic interfaces for Microgrids and active distribution networks is directly related to the development of SCADA and communications infrastructure in the same area. 
          Chapter 7 discusses the SCADA and communications in Microgrid management. 
           Chapter 8 discusses power quality and reliability issues of Microgrid and active distribution networks.
          Chapters 9 and 10 deal with the economical impacts and market participation of Microgrids, respectively.

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Preface
In many ways this book started 10 years ago, when the editors started their collaboration at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. At that time, sensor networks were a somewhat arcane topic. Since then, many new technologies have ripened, and prototype devices have emerged on the market. We were lucky enough to be able to continue our collaboration under the aegis of the DARPA IXO Sensor Information Technology Program, and the Emergent Surveillance Plexus Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative. 
           What was clear 10 years ago, and has become more obvious since, is that the only way to monitor the real world adequately is to use a network of devices. Many reasons for this will be given in this book. These reasons range from financial considerations to statistical inference constraints. Once you start using a network situated in the real world, the need for adaptation and self-configuration also become obvious.
           What was probably not known 10 years ago was the breadth and depth of research needed to design these systems adequately. The book in front of you contains chapters from acknowledged leaders in sensor network design. The contributors work at leading research institutions and have expertise in a broad range of technical fields.
          The field of sensor networks has matured greatly within the last few years. The editors are grateful to have participated in this process. We are especially pleased to have been able to interact with the research groups whose work is presented here. This growth has only been possible with the support from many government agencies, especially within the Department of Defense. Visionary program managers at DARPA, ONR, AFRL, and ARL have made a significant impact on these technologies. 
         It is the editors’ sincere hope that the field continues to mature. We also hope that the crossfertilization of ideas between technical fields that has enabled these advances, deepens.

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Preface 

The book arises from the conviction that it is necessary to re-think the basic philosophy governing the electricity distribution systems. In the authors’ opinion there is a need to exploit fully the potential advantages of renewable energy sources, distributed generation, energy storage and other factors which should not only be connected but also fully integrated into the system to increase the efficiency, flexibility, safety, reliability and quality of the electricity and networks. Transformation of the current electricity grids into a smart (resilient, interactive etc.) network necessitates the development, propagation and demonstration of key cost effective technologies enabling (e.g., innovative interconnection solutions, storage technologies for renewable energy sources, power electronics, communications etc.). On the basis of the above, the major aim of this book is to present the features, solutions and applications of the power electronics arrangements likely to be useful in future smart electrical energy networks. 
            The first part of this book introduces the structure and fundamental problems of the current electricity grids together with the concept of smart electrical energy networks. 
            Next there is a critical overview of power theories, mainly under non-sinusoidal conditions in single-phase and three-phase systems, in both time and frequency domains. The basic criterion for the choice of the discussed theories is historical development of knowledge in this field and the usefulness of power theory in solving practical problems: reactive power compensation, balancing the supply network load and mitigation of voltage and current distortion. Particular attention is given to the theories defining the current components in the time domain as the basis for present-day interconnection, active compensation and filtering systems. The content of this part is essential for understanding both the principle of operation and the control algorithms of the majority of the currently used power quality improvement and interconnecting systems. 
           Additionally, in this part an overview of control methods in power systems with the focus on damping of electromechanical oscillations and mitigation of power quality problems is presented. The focus is on power systems with increased levels of uncertainty resulting from deregulation of theelectrical power industry and the presence of non-conventional types of generation (renewable energy sources and distributed generation). The issue of finding the best techno-economical solution for the problems is also briefly mentioned. The focus in thepower quality section is on probabilistic modelling of disturbances and their consequences. 
          In the next part of the book the main emphasis is on low, medium, and high power conversion issues and the power electronic converters that process power for a variety of applications in smart grids. Following recent trends in power electronics technology, greater stress is placed on modern power electronic converters, such as resonant and multi-level inverters or matrix converters, and these are thoroughly covered. Special features include in-depth discussions of all power conversion types: AC/DC, AC/AC, DC/DC, and DC/AC. 
           After that, both the relationships and the differences between electrical power quality and electromagnetic compatibility are explained and definitions of these notions are provided. The principles of standardization in both fields are also be discussed. The power quality survey is a useful procedure for identifying and resolving power-related equipment or facility problems. It is an organized, systematic approach to problem solving. If all the steps for a power quality survey are completed, information is obtained that either identifies a solution to a powerrelated problem or reveals that the problem is not related to the electrical power system. 
             After that, EMC related problems in smart electrical power systems as well as some EMC regulations are overviewed. Special attention is paid to the origin and the spreading of the conducted EMI over power systems containing power converters. This is true because the diversity of power converters makes difficult the general analysis of the EMI spectra. However, there are some common features which can be derived from typical applications and layouts of the systems with power converters. Specific key aspects of electromagnetic compatibility in power electronics are presented, such as a typical role of power converters and their place in the smart power system, a typical frequency range of generated EMI noises, specific features of the common mode source in three-phase power converter systems and traveling wave phenomena. This part gives a detailed analysis based on the authors’ own experimental results in the systems with converters that are common in smart power systems. 
             The next part of the book introduces high frequency AC power distribution systems as relatively new and promising developments in the field of electric power. Compared with low frequency or DC link power systems, the high frequency system offers many key advantages including system compactness due to small filtering and transforming components, better power quality, freedom from acoustic noise and mechanical resonance. In addition, it is particularly conducive to the distributed and amalgamated structures of future power systems, which are likely to converge with the information superhighways. Also described are the motivations and performances of the earliest high frequency systems used in telecommunications and NASA’s Space Station, and to those more recently introduced in the fields of electric vehicles, micro-grids and renewable energies. Additionally there is discussion of the many potential benefits these systems can offer in shaping the future electric power infrastructure, and also the challenges that need to be overcome. 
              Next addresed are the technical considerations for interconnecting distributed generation equipment with conventional electric utility systems. This discussion arises from the fact that most electric distribution systems are designed, protected, and operated on the premise of being a single source of electric potential on each distribution feeder at any given time. Distributed generation violates this fundamental assumption, and therefore special requirements for connecting to the utility distribution grid are critical to ensure safe and reliable operation. Manufacturers, vendors, and end-users often see distributeed generation interconnection requirements as a huge market barrier, whereas utility engineers consider them to be absolutely necessary. Thus tools to help assess practical interconnection for specific projects and equipment are provided; we also create a clearinghouse for the many ongoing domestic and international efforts to develop uniform standards for interconnection.
             After that, the next part of this book is targeted at known electric energy storage systems as well as development of methodologies and tools for assessing the economic value and the strategic aspects of storage systems integrated into electricity grids. Such tools should be ble to evaluate and analyse energy storage solutions in a variety of applications, such as integration of distributed/renewable energy resources, reduction of peak loading, improvement of transmission grid stability and reliability. Additionally, electricity storage is presented as a strategic enabling technology which not only reduces costs and increases the efficient use of grid assets, but is key for accelerating the integration of distributed generation and renewable sources of energy. 
           The next part of our book deals with grid integration of wind energy systems. The focus of this topic is on the electrical side of wind conversion systems. After a short description of the basics, such as energy conversion, power limitation and speed control ranges, the existing generator types in wind energy conversion system are described. Because of the practical problems arising with wind turbine installations, their grid integration is an interesting field, whereas the characteristics of wind energy conversion itself, the common types of grid coupling and resulting wind park designs are discussed. On the point of common coupling, wind energy generation may produce distortions of the grid, e.g., flicker effects and harmonics. The causes of their generation, superposition and mitigation are described in detail. Existing standards and the requirements of the transmission system operators are also discussed from the point of view of the conversion system. 
            Because of limited onshore areas for wind energy systems in Europe, powerful wind parks can be installed only at selected places. A solution of this problem is offshore technology which, due to better wind conditions, brings higher energy yields, but also a lot of additional requirements for the installation and operation of the wind turbines. This includes a special generator design necessitated by the salty environment and different possibilities for the wind park structure, which has internal fixed or free adjustable parameters such as frequency, voltage range and transmission type. The external energy transmission to the onshore substation can be realized with different system configurations. Their advantages and disadvantages are explained. 
           The next part of the book describes grid integration of photovoltaic systems and fuel cell systems. First the cell types and their efficiency and place requirement are explained. The focus lies on grid-connected photovoltaics, mainly their plant design and grid interfacing of systems depending on isolation conditions, and the possible use of different components is a topic of current interest. Power quality becomes an important issue if higher unit powers are installed. Special problems arising from common connection at the low voltage level are discussed. Derived from the existing devices and their assigned problems in the grid, possibilities for future development are presented. 
           Fuel cells, photovoltaic systems, generate DC voltage and need a power electronic conversion unit for their grid connection. The different types of fuel cells and their typical applications are described. But the focus lies on plant design, grid interfacing and future development. At the moment only a few fuel cell applications exist. The big potential of this technology may lead to large installation numbers within the next five years. Existing standards of this technology are listed to assist the understanding of this technology.

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Series Introduction 
Power engineering is the oldest and most traditional of the various areas within electrical engineering, yet no other facet of modern technology is currently undergoing a more dramatic revolution in technology or business structure. Perhaps the most fundamental change taking place in the electric utility industry is the move toward a quantitative basis for the management of service reliability. Traditionally, electric utilities achieved satisfactory customer service quality through the use of more or less "one size fits all situations" standards and criteria that experience had shown would lead to no more than an acceptable level of trouble on their system. Tried and true, these methods succeeded in achieving acceptable service quality.
         But evolving industry requirements changed the relevance of these methods in two ways. First, the needs of modern electric energy consumers changed. Even into the early 1980s, very short (less than 10 second) interruptions of power had minimal impact on most consumers. Then, utilities routinely performed field switching of feeders in the early morning hours, creating 10-second interruptions of power flow that most consumers would not even notice. But where the synchronous-motor alarm clocks of the 1960s and 1970s would just fall a few seconds behind during such interruptions, modern digital clocks, microelectronic equipment and computers cease working altogether. Homeowners of the 1970s woke up the next morning—not even knowing or caring—that their alarm clocks were a few seconds behind. Homeowners today wake up minutes or hours late, to blinking digital displays throughout their home. In this and many other ways, the widespread use of digital equipment and automated processes has redefined the term "acceptable service quality" and has particularly increased the importance of interruption frequency as a measure of utility performance. 
          Second, while the traditional standards-driven paradigm did achieve satisfactory service quality in most cases, it did not do so at the lowest possible cost. In addition, it had no mechanism for achieving reliability targets in a demonstrated least-cost manner. As a result, in the late 20th century, electric utility management, public utility regulators, and energy consumers alike realized there had to be a more economically effective way to achieve satisfactory reliability levels of electric service. This was to engineer the system to provide the type of reliability needed at the lowest possible cost, creating a need for rigorous, quantitative reliability analysis and engineering methods—techniques capable of "engineering reliability into a system" in the same way that capacity or voltage regulation targets had traditionally been targeted and designed to. 
         Many people throughout the industry contributed to the development of what are today the accepted methods of reliability analysis and predictive design. But none contributed as much to either theory, or practice, as Richard Brown. His work is the foundation of modern power distribution reliability engineering. It is therefore with great pride that I welcome Electric Power Distribution Reliability as the newest addition to the Marcel Dekker series on Power Engineering. This is all the more rewarding to me because for the past six years Richard Brown has been one of my most trusted co-workers and research collaborators at ABB, and a good friend. 
          Dr. Brown's book lays out the rules and structure for modern power distribution reliability engineering in a rigorous yet accessible manner. While scrupulously correct in theory and mathematics, his book provides a wealth of practical experience and useful knowledge that can be applied by any electric power engineer to improve power distribution reliability performance. Thus, Electric Power Distribution Reliability fits particularly well into the theme of Marcel Dekker's Power Engineering Series, which focuses on providing modern power technology in a context of proven, practical application—books useful as references as well as for self-study and classroom use. I have no doubt that this book will be the reference in power delivery reliability engineering for years to come. Good work, Richard.

Preface 

Distribution reliability is one of the most important topics in the electric power industry due to its high impact on the cost of electricity and its high correlation with customer satisfaction. The breadth and depth of issues relating to this subject span nearly every distribution company department including procurement, operations, engineering, planning, rate making, customer relations and regulatory. Due in large part to its all-encompassing nature, distribution reliability has been difficult for utilities to address in a holistic manner. Most departments, if they address reliability at all, do so in isolation without considering how their actions may relate to those in different parts of the company—an understandable situation since there has been no single reference that covers all related issues and explains their interrelationships. This book is an attempt to fill this void by serving as a comprehensive tutorial and reference book covering all major topics related to distribution reliability. Each subject has been extensively researched and referenced with the intent of presenting a balance of theory, practical knowledge and practical applications. After reading this book, readers will have a basic understanding of distribution reliability issues and will know how these issues have affected typical utilities in the past. Further, readers will be knowledgeable about techniques capable of addressing reliability issues and will have a basic feel for the results that can be expected from their proper application.
           Electric Power Distribution Reliability is intended for engineering professionals interested in the topic described by its title. Utility distribution planners will find it of greatest use, but it also contains valuable information for engineers, dispatchers, operations personnel and maintenance personnel. Because of its breadth, this book may also find use with distribution company directors and executives, as well as with state regulatory authorities. It is intended to be a scholarly work and is suitable for use with senior or graduate level instruction as well as for self-instruction.
          This book is divided into seven chapters. Although each is a self-contained topic, the book is written so that each chapter builds upon the knowledge of prior chapters. As such, this book should be read through sequentially upon first encounter. Terminology and context introduced in prior chapters are required knowledge to fully comprehend and assimilate subsequent topics. After an initial reading, this book will serve well as a refresher and reference volume and has a detailed index to facilitate the quick location of specific material. 
          The first chapter, "Distribution Systems," presents fundamental concepts, terminology and symbology that serve as a foundation of knowledge for reliability-specific topics. It begins by describing the function of distribution systems in the overall electric power system. It continues by describing the component and system characteristics of substations, feeders and secondary systems. The chapter concludes by discussing issues associated with load characteristics and distribution operations. 
          The second chapter, "Reliability Metrics and Indices," discusses the various aspects of distribution reliability and defines terms that are frequently used later in the book. It begins at a high level by discussing power quality and its relationship to reliability. Standard reliability indices are then presented along with benchmark data and a discussion of their benefits and drawbacks. The chapter continues by discussing reliability from the customer perspective including the customer cost of interrupted electrical service and the customer surveys used to obtain this information. The chapter ends with a discussion of reliability targets and the industry trend towards performance-based rates, reliability guarantees and customer choice.                           
           Remembering that reliability problems are caused by real events, Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive discussion of all major causes of customer interruptions. It begins by describing the most common types of equipment failures and their associated failure modes, incipient failure detection possibilities and failure prevention strategies. It then discusses reliability issues associated with animals, presents animal data associated with reliability and offers recommendations to mitigate and prevent animal problems. The chapter continues by discussing severe weather including wind, lightning, ice storms, heat storms, earthquakes and fires. Human causes are the last interruption category addressed, including operating errors, vehicular accidents, dig-ins and vandalism. To place all of this information in perspective, the chapter concludes by discussing the most common interruption causes experienced by typical utilities.
          The analytical section of this book begins in Chapter 4, "Component Modeling." The chapter starts by defining the component reliability parameters that form the basis of all reliability models. It then discusses basic modeling concepts such as hazard functions, probability distribution functions and statistics. It ends by providing component reliability data for a wide variety of distribution equipment, which can be used both as a benchmark for custom data or as generic data in lieu of custom data. 
          The topic of component reliability modeling leads naturally into the next chapter, "System Modeling." This chapter begins with a tutorial on basic system analysis concepts such as states, Venn diagrams, network modeling and Markov modeling. The bulk of the chapter focuses on analytical and Monte Carlo simulation methods, which are the recommended approaches for most distribution system reliability assessment needs. Algorithms are presented with detail sufficient for the reader to implement models in computer software, and reflect all of the major system issues associated with distribution reliability. For completeness, the chapter concludes by presenting reliability analysis techniques commonly used in other fields and discusses their applicability to distribution systems. 
           The sixth chapter, "System Analysis," focuses on how to use the modeling concepts developed in the previous two chapters to improve system reliability. It begins with the practical issues of actually creating a system model, populating it with default data and calibrating it to historical data. It then presents techniques to analyze the system model including visualization, risk analysis, sensitivity analyses, root-cause analysis and loading analysis. One of the most important topics of the book comes next: strategies to improve reliability and how to quantify their impact by incorporating them into component and system models. The chapter then discusses how to view reliability improvement projects from a value perspective by presenting the basics of economic analysis and the prioritization method of marginal benefit-to-cost analysis. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive example that shows how system analysis techniques can be applied to improve the reliability of an actual distribution system.              
          Since most distribution companies would like to optimize the reliability of their distribution system, this book concludes with a chapter on system optimization. It begins by discussing common misconceptions about optimization and continues by showing how to properly formulate an optimization problem. It then presents several optimization methods that are particularly suitable for distribution system reliability. Finally, the book presents several practical applications of reliability optimization and discusses potential barriers that might be encountered when attempting to implement a reliability optimization initiative that spans many distribution company departments and budgets. 
          Electric Power Distribution Reliability is the product of approximately ten years of effort in various aspects of electric power distribution reliability. I would like to thank the following people for teaching, collaborating and supporting me during this time. In the academic world, I would like to thank Dr. Mani Venkata, Dr. Richard Christie and Dr. Anil Pahwa for their insight, guidance and support. In industry, I would like to acknowledge the contributions and suggestions of my co-workers at ABB with special thanks to Mr. Lee Willis, Dr. Andrew Hanson, Mr. Jim Burke, Mr. Mike Marshall, Mr. Tim Taylor, Mr. Greg Welch, Mr. Lavelle Freeman and Dr. Fangxing Li. I would also like to thank Rita Lazazzaro and Lila Harris at Marcel Dekker, Inc., for their involvement and efforts to make this book a quality effort. Last, I would like to offer special thanks to my wife Christelle and to my daughter Ashlyn for providing the inspiration and support without which this book would not be possible.

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The first planar circuit was fabricated by Fairchild Semiconductor Company in 1959. Since then, the evolution of the integrated circuit has progressed, now providing billions of transistors on a single monolithic substrate. These integrated circuits are an integral and nearly essential part of our modern life. The power consumed by a typical 20×20 mm2 microprocessor is in the range of several hundreds of watts, making integrated circuits one of the highest power consumers per unit area. With such a high rate of power consumption, the problem of delivering power on-chip has become a fundamental issue. The focus of this book is on distributing power within high performance integrated circuits. 
             In 2004, the book titled Power Distribution Networks in High Speed Integrated Circuits by A. V. Mezhiba and E. G. Friedman was published to describe, for the first time in book form, the design and analysis of power distribution networks within integrated circuits. The book described different aspects of on-chip power distribution networks, starting with a general introduction and ending with a discussion of various design tradeoffs in on-chip power distribution networks. Later, the important and highly relevant topic of decoupling capacitance was added to this book. Due to the significant change in size and focus, the book was released in 2008 as a new first edition with a new title, Power Distribution Networks with On-Chip Decoupling Capacitors by M. Popovich, A. V. Mezhiba, and E. G. Friedman. Since this revised book was published, new design and analysis challenges in on-chip power networks have emerged. 
             The rapidly evolving field of integrated circuits has required an innovative perspective on on-chip power generation and distribution, shifting the authors’ research focus to these new challenges. Updating knowledge on chip-based power distribution networks is the primary purpose for publishing a second edition of Power Distribution Networks with On-Chip Decoupling Capacitors. Focus is placed on complexity issues related to power distribution networks, developing novel design methodologies and providing solutions for specific design and analysis issues. In this second edition, the authors have revised and updated previously published chapters and added four new chapters to the book. This second edition has also been partitioned into sub-areas (called Parts) to provide a more intuitive flow to the reader.                
            The organization of the book is now separated into seven parts. A general background, introducing power networks, inductive properties, electromigration, and decoupling capacitance within integrated circuits, is provided in Part I (Chapters 1 to 7). In Part II (Chapters 8 to 12), the design of on-chip power distribution networks is discussed. Since noise within the power grid is a primary design constraint, this issue is reviewed in Part III (Chapters 13 to 19). In Part IV (Chapters 20 to 23), the primary issue of placing on-chip decoupling capacitors is discussed. Multi-layer power distribution networks are the focus of Part V (Chapters 24 to 26). In Part VI (Chapter 27 to 30), multiple power supply systems are described. The focus of this part is on those integrated circuits where several on-chip power supplies are required. In Part VII, some concluding comments, the appendices, and additional information are provided. 
             This revised and updated material is based on recent research by Renatas Jakushokas and Sel¸cuk K¨ose developed between 2005 and 2010 at the University of Rochester during their doctoral studies under the supervision of Prof. Eby G. Friedman. The emphasis of these newly added chapters is on the complexity of power distribution networks. Models for commonly used meshed and interdigitated interconnect structures are described. These models can be used to accurately and efficiently estimate the resistance and inductance of complex power distribution networks. With these models, on-chip power networks can be efficiently analyzed and designed, greatly enhancing the performance of the overall integrated circuit. 
            The book covers a wide spectrum of issues related to on-chip power distribution networks. The authors believe that this revised edition provides the latest information into what is a quickly changing and highly important topic to both the industrial and academic research and development communities.

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FORTE 2001, formerly FORTE/PSTV conference, is a combined conference of FORTE (Formal Description Techniques for Distributed Systems and Communication Protocols) and PSTV (Protocol Specification, Testing and Verification) conferences. This year the conference has a new name FORTE (Formal Techniques for Networked and Distributed Systems). The previous FORTE began in 1989 and the PSTV conference in 1981. Therefore the new FORTE conference actually has a long history of 21 years. 
              The purpose of this conference is to introduce theories and formal techniques applicable to various engineering stages of networked and distributed systems and to share applications and experiences of them. This FORTE 2001 conference proceedings contains 24 refereed papers and 4 invited papers on the subjects. We regret that many good papers submitted could not be published in this volume due to the lack of space. FORTE 2001 was organized under the auspices of IFIP WG 6.1 by Information and Communications University of Korea. It was financially supported by Ministry of Information and Communication of Korea. 
               We would like to thank every author who submitted a paper to FORTE 2001 and thank the reviewers who generously spent their time on reviewing. Special thanks are due to the reviewers who kindly conducted additional reviews for rigorous review process within a very short time frame. We would like to thank Prof. Guy Leduc, the chairman of IFIP WG 6.1, who made valuable suggestions and shared his experiences for conference organization. 
              This year we have seen exceptionally concerted efforts of the program committee to make FORTE 2001 a successful conference. We thank each one of the program committee for their contribution and cooperation. The enthusiasm and dedication the program committee showed has made us believe that FORTE will remain a prestigious conference with quality and distinction for a long time in the future.

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The purpose of this book is to provide insight and intuition into the behavior and design of power distribution systems with decoupling capacitors for application to high speed integrated circuits. The primary objectives are threefold. First, to describe the impedance characteristics of the overall power distribution system, from the voltage regulator through the printed circuit board and package onto the integrated circuit to the power terminals of the on-chip circuitry. The second objective of this book is to discuss the inductive characteristics of on-chip power distribution grids and the related circuit behavior of these structures. Finally, the third primary objective is to present design methodologies for efficiently placing on-chip decoupling capacitors in nanoscale integrated circuits.
           Technology scaling has been the primary driver behind the amazing performance improvement of integrated circuits over the past several decades. The speed and integration density of integrated circuits have dramatically improved. These performance gains, however, have made distributing power to the on-chip circuitry a difficult task. Highly dense circuitry operating at high clock speeds have increased the distributed current to many tens of amperes, while the noise margin of the power supply has shrunk consistent with decreasing power supply levels. These trends have elevated the problems of power distribution and allocation of the on-chip decoupling capacitors to the forefront of several challenges in developing high performance integrated circuits.
          This book is based on the body of research carried out by Mikhail Popovich from 2001 to 2007 and Andrey V. Mezhiba from 1998 to 2003 at the University of Rochester during their doctoral studies under the supervision of Professor Eby G. Friedman. It is apparent to the authors that although various aspects of the power distribution problem have been addressed in numerous research publications, no text exists that provides a unified focus on power distribution systems and related design problems. Furthermore, the placement of on-chip decoupling capacitors has traditionally been treated as an algorithmic oriented problem. A more electrical perspective, both circuit models and design techniques, has been used in this book for presenting how to efficiently allocate on-chip decoupling capacitors. The fundamental objective of this book is to provide a broad and cohesive treatment of these subjects.
         Another consequence of higher speed and greater integration density has been the emergence of inductance as a significant factor in the behavior of on-chip global interconnect structures. Once clock frequencies exceeded several hundred megahertz, incorporating on-chip inductance into the circuit analysis process became necessary to accurately describe signal delays and waveform characteristics. Although on-chip decoupling capacitors attenuate high frequency signals in power distribution networks, the inductance of the on-chip power interconnect is expected to become a significant factor in multi-gigahertz digital circuits. An important objective of this book, therefore, is to clarify the effects of inductance on the impedance characteristics of on-chip power distribution grids and to provide an understanding of related circuit behavior.
         The organization of the book is consistent with these primary goals. The first eight chapters provide a general description of distributing power in integrated circuits with decoupling capacitors. The challenges of power distribution are introduced and the principles of designing power distribution systems are described. A general background to decoupling capacitors is presented followed by a discussion of the use of a hierarchy of capacitors to improve the impedance characteristics of the power network. An overview of related phenomena, such as inductance and electromigration, is also presented in a tutorial style. The following seven chapters are dedicated to the impedance characteristics of on-chip power distribution networks. The effect of the interconnect inductance on the impedance characteristics of on-chip power distribution networks is investigated. The implications of these impedance characteristics on circuit behavior are also discussed. On-chip power distribution grids are described, exploiting multiple power supply voltages and multiple grounds. Techniques and algorithms for the computer-aided design and  analysis of power distribution networks are also described; however, the emphasis of the book is on developing circuit intuition and understanding the electrical principles that govern the design and operation of power distribution systems. The remaining five chapters focus on the design of a system of on-chip decoupling capacitors. Methodologies for designing power distribution grids with on-chip decoupling capacitors are also presented. These techniques provide a solution for determining the location and magnitude of the on-chip decoupling capacitance to mitigate on-chip voltage fluctuations.

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        This little book is written in the hope that it may be of service to those whose daily work is concerned with the art of transportation, in which electrical traction is to-day so potent a factor. The part it may play to-morrow only the prophet can say.
      The author has endeavored to set forth the general principles of the distribution of electrical energy to moving motors, to describe the methods which experience has shown to be desirable in such work, and to point out the ways in which these principles and methods can be co-ordinated in everyday practice. The art of correctly designing systems of distribution requires, more than anything else, skilled judgment and infinite finesse-, it cannot be reduced to formulae in which these terms do not enter as variables. The most that can be done is to sketch the lines of thought that, followed cautiously and shrewdly, lead to good results. 
      For the most part apparatus is too mutable to describe exhaustively, unless one is writing history. The reader will therefore find little of such detail, save in the frontier region which lies between established tramway practice and that greater field that stretches toward unknown bounds. Along that frontier experiment has blazed paths here and there, and we must note them carefully. We can see whither they lead, but dare not say how far. 
      The best advice that can be given to the engineer is to keep his eyes and ears open and never to let himself get caught out of sight of experimental facts.

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Advances in the miniaturization of microelectromechanical systems have led to battery-powered sensor nodes that have sensing, communication and processing capabilities. These sensor nodes can be networked in an ad hoc manner to perform distributed sensing and information processing. Such ad hoc sensor networks provide greater fault tolerance and sensing accuracy and are typically less expensive compared to the alternative of using only a few large isolated sensors. These networks can also be deployed in inhospitable terrains or in hostile environments to provide continuous monitoring and processing capabilities. 
             A typical sensor network application is inventory tracking in factory warehouses. A single sensor node can be attached to each item in the warehouse. These sensor nodes can then be used for tracking the location of the items as they are moved within the warehouse. They can also provide information on the location of nearby items as well as the history of movement of various items. Once deployed, the sensor network needs very little human intervention and can function autonomously. Another typical application of sensor networks lies in military situations. Sensor nodes can be air-dropped behind enemy lines or in inhospitable terrain. These nodes can self-organize themselves and provide unattended monitoring of the deployed area by gathering information about enemy defenses and equipment, movement of troops, and areas of troop concentration. They can then relay this information back to a friendly base station for further processing and decision making. 
            Sensor nodes are typically characterized by small form-factor, limited battery power, and a small amount of memory. Due to their limited resources, many of the methods developed for the Internet and mobile ad hoc networks cannot be directly applied to sensor networks. A scalable infrastructure is to solve problems such as data routing, self-organization and data dissemination that emerge in sensor networks. This book is focused on a scalable infrastructure for information processing in wireless sensor networks. It addresses the problems of coverage-centric sensor deployment, energy-efficient self-organization, target localization, information dissemination, data routing, and time synchronization.

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As General Chairs it is our pleasure to welcome you to the proceedings of ICDCN 2010, the 11th International Conference on Distributed Computing and Networking. This series of events started as the International Workshop on Distributed Computing (IWDC) in the year 2000. In view of the growing number of papers both in distributed computing and networking, and the natural synergy between the two areas, in 2006 the workshop series assumed its current name. Since then the conference has grown steadily in its reach and stature. The conference has attracted quality submissions and top speakers annually in the areas of distributed computing and networking from all over the world, thereby strengthening the connection between research in India, which has been on the rise, and the rest of the world. After a foray into Central India in the year 2009, this year the conference returned to the city of Kolkata.

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ប្រព័ន្ធសូឡា គឺជាប្រព័ន្ធមួយដែលគេនិយមប្រើវានៅតាមកន្លែងមួយចំនួនដូចជាៈ
តាមផ្ទះ អង់ដែនទូរស័ព្ទ ធានាគារ សណ្ធាគារ នឹងកន្លែងផ្សេងៗ ។
ក្នុុងប្រព័ន្នសូឡាដែលប្រើប្រាស់ សព្វថ្ងៃនេះត្រូវបានចែកចេញជាបីផ្នែកទៀត ។
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